Meaning of Interactionism Theory
Interactionism theory in sociology focuses on how individuals create and interpret social reality through daily interactions and shared symbols. Rooted in the work of George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer, it emphasizes the importance of meaning-making in shaping behavior and societal norms, highlighting that reality is constructed through language, gestures, and social context.
Interactionism theory is also known as symbolic interactionism or the interactionist perspective. Interactionism views society as the product of everyday interactions of individuals (the actors) and these interactions are based on mutually understood symbols.
Unlike functionalism theory which focuses on large social structures and conflict theory which focuses on fundamental conflicts or divisions in society, interactionism focuses on a smaller level (i.e. micro-scale social phenomena such as social interactions).
It acknowledges that humans have agency and are not influenced by forces outside their control and therefore, create their own meanings about the social world through interactions with each other.
So, interactionism places individual actors at the center and focuses on the subjective meaning they attach to the social situation and this meaning becomes the social reality.
Symbolic interactionism theory asserts that society is composed of symbols and can be understood and analyzed by addressing the subjective meanings that people attach to objects, events, and behaviors that they consider symbols.
Subjective meanings are given primacy because it is believed that people behave based on what they believe and not just on what is objectively (actually) true.
Thus, society is thought to be socially constructed through human interpretation. E.g. why would young people smoke cigarettes even when all objective medical evidence points to the dangers of doing so?
The answer is in the definition of the contextual situation that people create. Studies find that teenagers are well informed about the risks of tobacco, but they also think that smoking is cool and that smoking gives a positive image to their peers.
So, the symbolic meaning of smoking overrides those facts regarding smoking and risk. Other aspects like nice and gender can also be understood through the interactionist perspective.
Though the objective truth is that race simply means people of different origin the skin, color (which is a symbol) has been given meaning such as lighter skin, Latinos are better than the darker-skinned blacks.
Similarly, gender is produced and reinforced through daily interactions. The meaning is attached to the symbols ‘man” as masculine and ‘woman’ as feminine therefore while approaching for loans in the bank, one would use a logical appeal/request to a male loan officer whereas one would use an emotional appeal to a female loan officer. So, one acts towards the loan officers based on meanings derived through social interactions.
Interactionists see symbols as an especially important part of human communication. They consider that humans live in a world of symbols. The meanings attached to symbols are socially constructed and contextual.
For e.g. both a ‘clenched fist’ and a ‘salute’ have a social meaning which is shared and understood by the members of society. In Nepal, a salute symbolizes respect, while a clenched fist signifies defiance. However, in other cultures, different gestures might be used to convey a feeling of respect or defiance.
Interactionism is also concerned with the social context in which our interactions take place. The social context not only plays an important role in the way we interpret others’ behavior but also in how we choose to behave ourselves at any given moment.
The origin of interactionism can be traced to Max Weber’s work, which recognized that small-scale interactions, people’s beliefs, and values influenced human behavior and actions. Later, this theory was advanced by American sociologists George Herbert Mead, Charles Horton Cooley, and Herbert Blumer in the early 20th century.
Methods Used by Interactionism
The symbolic interactionist perspective is more likely to use qualitative research methods, such as in-depth interviews or participant observation because they seek to understand the symbolic worlds in which research the actors/subjects live.
The symbolic-interactionists look for patterns of interaction between individuals. Their studies often involve the observation of one-on-one interactions.
For e.g. while a conflict theorist studying a political protest might focus on class difference, a symbolic interactionist would be more interested in how individuals in the protesting group interact, as well as the signs and symbols protesters use to communicate their message.
Assumptions of Interactionist Perspective
The main assumptions of interactionism theory are:
Focus on Everyday Social Interactions
Interactionism emphasizes social behavior in daily life situations, such as conversations, gestures, and symbols. It examines how individuals act and react in various contexts, revealing how society is shaped by these interactions.
By observing micro-level interactions, this theory explains how broader social patterns and norms emerge from everyday human behavior.
Society as a Product of Individual Interactions
This theory sees society as the outcome of countless individual interactions rather than overarching systems. It suggests that social institutions and norms are constructed through continuous human engagement.
Each interaction contributes to the larger social structure, emphasizing that society is a dynamic product of ongoing human activity and communication.
Understanding Social Reality from Individual Perspectives
Interactionism centers on individuals and their interpretation of the social world. It argues that people create social reality through their subjective experiences.
By focusing on personal perspectives, the theory highlights how meaning is constructed, allowing sociologists to understand society by examining how individuals interpret their surroundings.
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Focus on Shared Meanings
The theory explores how individuals create, describe, and explain shared meanings in everyday life. Through language, symbols, and gestures, people develop common understandings that guide social interactions.
These shared meanings form the foundation of societal norms and practices, showing how collective realities emerge from individual contributions.
Emphasis on Cognitive (Common Sense) Aspects
Interactionism underscores the role of common sense and cognition in social interactions. People use their everyday knowledge to interpret situations and respond accordingly.
This cognitive approach highlights how individuals rely on shared understanding and logic to navigate social life, shaping society through their practical reasoning and interpretations.
Micro-Level Theoretical Orientation
Interactionism operates on a micro-level, focusing on small-scale, face-to-face interactions rather than large social structures. It examines how individual actions and meanings influence broader societal trends.
By studying personal interactions, this theory provides insight into how societal norms and institutions are built from the ground up.
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Weakness or Criticism of Interactionist Theory
- Interactionism theory is criticized for too much emphasis on micro-level analysis; and neglect of larger social processes and issues (such as socialization, competition, globalization, westernization, etc.) on which human behaviors depend. It means they focus on the trees than the forest.
- This theory is also criticized for neglecting the influence of large social forces and institutions on individual interactions.
- The findings of research done from the interactionist perspective require scrutiny because of the subjective analysis.
Contributors to Interactionism
The main contributors to the interactionist theory of sociology are listed below:
George Herbert Mead
George Herbert Mead is considered the father of symbolic interactionism. His work focuses on how individuals develop self-concepts through social interaction.
Mead introduced the concept of the “self” as composed of the “I” (spontaneous self) and the “Me” (socially constructed self).
His key idea was that self-identity emerges from role-taking and understanding others’ perspectives. His posthumously published work “Mind, Self, and Society” (1934) laid the foundation for understanding how symbols and language shape human interaction and social reality.
Herbert Blumer
Herbert Blumer, a student of Mead, coined the term symbolic interactionism and expanded Mead’s ideas. Blumer emphasized that human behavior is guided by the meanings individuals assign to objects, events, and people, derived through interaction.
He outlined three core premises: meanings arise from interactions, are interpreted through personal experiences, and are modified during social interactions.
His work “Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method” (1969) formalized the theory, making it a central framework in sociology.
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Erving Goffman
Erving Goffman is known for his dramaturgical approach, viewing social interactions as theatrical performances where individuals manage impressions to fit societal expectations.
In “The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life” (1956), he introduced concepts like front stage (public behavior) and backstage (private self).
Goffman’s work highlights how people use symbols, gestures, and language to convey meaning and maintain social roles, reinforcing the interactionist view of society as a product of interpersonal communication.
Charles Horton Cooley
Charles Horton Cooley introduced the concept of the “looking-glass self”, emphasizing that self-identity is shaped by how individuals believe others perceive them.
In “Human Nature and the Social Order” (1902), he described three stages: imagining how others see us, interpreting their reactions, and developing self-feelings like pride or shame.
Cooley’s ideas reinforced the importance of social interaction in self-concept formation and contributed to the broader development of symbolic interactionism.
Howard S. Becker
Howard S. Becker applied interactionism to the study of deviance, particularly through his labeling theory. In “Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance” (1963), Becker argued that deviance is not inherent in an act but is defined by societal reactions.
He emphasized how labels like “deviant” or “criminal” influence individuals’ self-perceptions and behaviors, showing how societal interactions shape identity and social roles, a core principle of interactions.
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Sujan Chaudhary holds a BBA degree. He loves to share his business knowledge with the rest of the world.